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Announcing .NET - .NET Blog.Microsoft Office Word Has Stopped Working Windows 10/8/7 - EaseUS
Office supports the new Office Open XML format, and defaults to saving all files in this format. On February 21, Geoff Price revealed that the format conversion update for Office would be delayed until June in order to provide the first update to Office Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications is not supported in this version.
Office for Mac lacks feature parity with the Windows version. Microsoft's response is that adding VBA support in Xcode would have resulted in an additional two years added to the development cycle of Office Some features are missing on Excel for Mac, including: data filters Data Bars, Top 10, Color-based, Icon-based , structured references, Excel tables, Table styles, a sort feature allowing more than three columns at once and more than one filter on a sort.
Benchmarks suggest that the original release of Office runs slower on Macs with PowerPC processors, and does not provide a significant speed bump for Macs with Intel processors. A data-compatibility problem has also been noted with CambridgeSoft 's chemical structure drawing program, ChemDraw. Word does not retain the structural information when a chemical structure is copied from ChemDraw and pasted into a document. If a structure is recopied from a Word document, and is pasted back into ChemDraw, it appears as a non-editable image rather than a recognized chemical structure.
There is no such problem in Word or X. However, there have been many reports of the updater failing to install, resulting in a message saying that an updatable version of Office was not found. A small modification to the installer has been found an effective work-around see reference.
Another widespread problem reported after SP1 is that Office files will no longer open in Office applications when opened double-clicked from the Mac OS X Finder or launched from other applications such as an email attachment.
The trigger for this problem is that Microsoft in SP1 unilaterally and without warning deprecated certain older Mac OS 'Type' codes such as "WDBN" that some files may have, either because they are simply very old, or because some applications assign the older Type code when saving them to the disk. Users have seen the problem affect even relatively new Type codes, however, such as 'W6BN'. Microsoft is apparently looking into the problem, but it is unclear if they will reinstate the older Type codes, citing security concerns.
Another problem with cross-platform compatibility is that images inserted into any Office application by using either cut and paste or drag and drop result in a file that does not display the inserted graphic when viewed on a Windows machine.
A user presented one solution as far back as December A further example of the lack of feature parity is the track changes function. Whereas users of Word or for Windows are able to choose freely between showing their changes in-line or as balloons in the right-hand margin, [21] [22] choosing the former option in Word or Word for Mac OS also turns off all comment balloons; comments in this case are visible only in the Reviewing Pane or as popup boxes i. The toolbox found in Office also has problems when the OS X feature Spaces is used: switching from one Space to another will cause elements of the Toolbox to get trapped on one Space until the Toolbox is closed and reopened.
The only remedy for this problem is to currently disable Spaces, or at least refrain from using it whilst working in Office Apple has been informed of the problem, according to Microsoft. In addition, there is no support for right to left and bidirectional languages such as Arabic, Hebrew, Persian, etc.
Languages such as Thai are similarly not supported, although installing fonts can sometimes allow documents written in these languages to be displayed. At the same time, Office applications are not integrated with the proofing tools native to Mac OS X Microsoft Visio is not available for OS X.
This means that any embedded Visio diagrams in other Office documents e. Word cannot be edited in Office on the Mac. Office for Mac also has a shorter lifecycle than Office Support for Office for Mac ended on April 9, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Retrieved February 10, January 15, Retrieved January 5, January 9, Ship building, dam construction, bridge building, book printing are some of the examples of job production. Third method of plant layout viz. Characteristics: — The job production possesses the following characteristics.
It refers to the production of goods, the quantity of which is known in advance. This method is generally similar to job production except the quantity of production. Instead of making one single product as in case of job production, a batch or group of products are produced at one time. It should be remembered here that one batch of products may not resemble with the next batch.
Under batch system of production the work is divided into operations and one operation is done at a time. After completing the work on one operation it is passed on to the second operation and so on till the product is completed. Batch production can be explained with the help of an illustration.
An enterprise wants to manufacture 20 electric motors. The work will be divided into different operations. The first operation on all the motors will be completed in the first batch and then it will pass on to the next operation.
The second group of operators will complete the second operation before the next and so on. Under job production the same operators will manufacture full machine and not one operation only. Batch production can fetch the benefits of repetitive production to a large extent, if the batch is of a sufficient quantity. Thus batch production may be defined as the manufacture of a product in small or large batches or lots by series of operations, each operation being carried on the whole batch before any subsequent operation is operated.
Under this method, production remains continuous in anticipation of future demand. Standardization is the basis of mass production. Standardized products are produced under this method by using standardized materials and equipment. There is a continuous or uninterrupted flow of production obtained by arranging the machines in a proper sequence of operations. Process layout is best suited method for mass production units. Flow production is the manufacture of a product by a series of operations, each article going on to a succeeding operation as soon as possible.
The manufacturing process is broken into separate operations. The product completed at one operation is automatically passed on to the next till its completion.
There is no time gap between the work done at one process and the starting at the next. The flow of production is continuous and progressive. Characteristics: — The mass or flow production possesses the following characteristics. Advantages of mass production: — A properly planned flow production method, results in the following advantages:.
Custom Manufacturing System — Custom manufacturing systems represent one of the oldest and most widely used forms of product making. In this system, a single craftsman produces one item at a time by hand or by machine. If machines are used in this system, they are often highly specialized, and capable of producing only a single line of merchandise.
This system offers the lowest level of efficiency and highest cost per unit, and results in very low levels of production. These objects must be identical, or very similar, and cannot be customized for individual buyers. This type of system works best for limited production runs, or for companies looking to produce a low volume of goods. Continuous Manufacturing System — Continuous manufacturing systems allow for mass production of products. In this system, the product moves from station to station along an assembly line, with different workers performing various production tasks along the way.
This type of system allows companies to meet high production goals, and results in a lower per-unit cost. Because of the large amount of equipment required to create an assembly line, as well as the level of labor, this type of system is often associated with large capital investments. Flexible Manufacturing System — Flexible manufacturing systems represent one of the most widely used modern production systems.
In this type of setup, companies invest in a variety of machinery that can be quickly and easily reconfigured to produce a large number of products. Flexible manufacturing often incorporates robots or automatic vehicles to help move products through the production process, eliminating the need for skilled labor.
This type of system allows for a high degree of flexibility in terms of product mix, and helps the company maintain high volume in each production run.
Because robots replace human labor in this type of system, products tend to be fairly consistent and quality remains high. This system requires a high degree of capital investment as well as frequent maintenance and oversight. The process of designing a manufacturing system therefore must engage upon the design of each of the above four components AND their integration.
While the following figure implicitly assumes the important role of the human in each of the modules, I have explicitly placed it separately in the figure above, partly because it helps in highlighting the importance of planning the human aspects of the system.
We first look broadly at these four elements, and subsequently, we shall study each of these aspects in somewhat more detail.
Physical Systems refer to all physical aspects of a manufacturing system, including the factories, including the facilities, machines, tools etc. The Operation refers to all aspects of decision structures that determine how the system functions. For example, does it use a Toyota style pull production, or does it depend on an MRP II system with forecasts driven production? How does the plant manager determine the size and sequence of the jobs to be done on each machine, on each day?
Examples include design data, machine data, tool data, inventory status, process data, vendors, clients, and personnel data and so on. It is likely that for any MS of reasonable complexity, one will need automated data handling facilities, e. I will also loosely include in this definition, mechanisms that are required for the flow of information, that is, Information Technology IT.
Humans refer to all personnel, vendors, customers, etc. Personnel related issues include: what is the capability level of available labour, what is the working culture 1-shift, 2-shift availability , how many do we need to hire for a given MS, what is the level of training needed, what policies will lead to better working environment etc.
Customers are another essential human element in the design of MS. We begin the study with the physical systems. I will use the following classification of manufacturing systems, which uses the material flow type as its basis:. Flexible Manufacturing systems may loosely be categorized as highly automated versions of process-based systems.
The above are all the physical production systems. In addition, we shall look at material handling systems, including transportation machines and inventory handling systems. Once we have a physical system all installed, we need to worry about the operational aspects.
This includes, among other things, Production Control. Several important things here include:. When we design the physical systems, we are concerned with the capability to produce the designed part. When studying the operational aspects, we are more concerned with the efficiency at which we are working.
Therefore, it is essential for us to know our goals, when we make operational decisions. Some typical descriptors used for Manufacturing Systems include:. Production rate : number of finished parts being produced by the system in unit time.
Throughput time : the time that a part spends in the system from the moment it is released from the inventory to the time it leaves the system.
Pick any two. Once we define our goals, we can test out which operational method heuristic gives us the best performance in order to achieve our goal s. We can do so by actually testing our operation plans on the shop floor, or we may study their perfomance using models. A good designer will model his MS before implementing it: it is almost always cheaper to do so! Therefore, we shall take a brief look at methods used to model manufacturing systems: in particular, simple mathematical models, and simulation.
The leading factors affecting plant location are as follows: 1. Selection of Region 2. Township Selection 3. Question of Urban and Rural Area 4. Location of a Factory in a Big City 5. Location of an Industry in Small Town 6. The Sub-urban Location for a Factory 7. Site Selection 8. Current Trends in Pant Location 9. Appropriate Site Selection The Design of Factory Plant Building. Availability of Raw Materials: — Proximity of sources of raw materials is the obvious explanation of the location of majority of sugar mills in Uttar Pradesh.
This means that the raw material should be available within the economical distance. Easy availability of supplies required for maintenance and operation of the plant should also be considered. Proximity to Markets: — Cost of distribution is an important item in the overhead expenses. So it will be advantageous to be near to the center of demand for finished products.
Importance of this is fully realized if the material required for the manufacturing of products are not bulk and fright charges are small. Consumer industries like cycles, sewing machines, radio televisions and other luxury goods etc.
For this purpose market analysis should be carried out keeping in view the following points:. Transport Facilities: — Since freight charges of raw materials and finished goods enter into the cost of production, therefore transportation facilities are becoming the governing factor in economic location of the plant. Depending upon the volume of the raw materials and finished products, a suitable method of transportation like rail, road, water transportation through river, canals or sea and air transport is selected and accordingly plant location is decided.
Important consideration should be that the cost of transportation should remain fairly small in comparison to the total cost of production. Availability of Power, Fuel or Gas: — Because of the wide spread use of electrical power the availability of fuel or gas has not remained a deciding factor in most of the cases for plant location.
The location of thermal power plants like Bokaro Thermal Plant and steel plants near coal fields are for cutting down cost of the fuel transportation. The reliability of continuous supply of these facilities is an important factor.
Water Supply: — Water is required for processing as in chemical, sugar and paper industries and is also used for drinking and sanitary purposes. Investigation for quality and probable source of supply is important, since the cost of treating water is substantial so the chemical properties like hardness, alkalinity and acidity. Presence of dissolved gases and organic material etc.
In case of water supply form an external source such as municipality, dependability of the source, pumping and storage capacity for present and future demands should be found out. Disposal Facility for Waste Products: — Thorough study should be made regarding disposal of water like effluents, solids, chemicals and other waste products likely to be produced during the production process.
Availability of Labour: — Potential supply of requisite type of labour governs plant location to major extent. Some industries need highly skilled labour while other need unskilled and intelligent labour. But the former type is difficult in rural areas in comparison with industrially developed location.
Momentum of an Established Industry: — Already established industry in a certain area will produce skilled labour in that trade. Thus future industries in that area will have no difficulty with respect to the skilled labour e.
Ludhiana is famous for cycle industries and Faridabad for engineering industries. Preference of Outstanding Businessmen and Government Subsidies: — Some of the factory locations do not consider the above factors but locate industries in a particular district or area just to develop that area.
It may be due to State Government policies regarding workers, pollution and smoke control requirements, waste disposal rules for industries etc. Thus, small plants may find location in big cities that too in upper stories of the buildings. Such accommodation may be utilized in view of availability of requisite type of labour in big cities.
Such reduction in the cost of production helps in elevating either the competitive strength or the profit margin of the business. If the selected site is not proper, all the money invested on factory building, installation of machinery etc. For those plants where employees, materials and infrastructure facilities require protection, the problems involved in designing and constructing effective and economical structures are many.
Good building design and planning can reduce manufacturing cost due to following reasons:. Practically in all industrial situations, plants or building is composed of rectangular or square area. Generally speaking a square building is cheaper to construct than a rectangular building because the square will have less perimeter per square meter of usable area.
This reduction in perimeter length results in lower foundation and outside site and boundary wall costs. At the same time however the square shape of the building normally does not suit to efficient production or assembly lines patterns. Furthermore, the cost of structural steel for floor and roof supports in the square building will likely to exceed that for a rectangular building and may offset the possible savings in foundation and wall costs.
Factors affecting the location of an industrial unit are: I Primary factors and ii Secondary factors:. Decision with regard to location of an industrial unit involves a careful study of many factors. Proper and right choice of location is instrumental in future success of the business. The various factors are divided into two categories viz. Unrestricted and regular supply of raw material is very necessary for carrying out unrestricted production.
Nearness to the source of raw material is very economical for an industrial unit. On account of this consideration many industries have been set up near the source of supply of raw material. Nearness to raw material is important in case of heavy and bulky materials having lesser value such as coal and other weight losing materials.
Industry using third type of raw material can be located anywhere. Alford Weber has given another type of raw materials called ubiquitous like clay sand and water which are found everywhere and as such do not affect the location of an industry. Another important point to be kept in mind that only nearness of raw materials is not sufficient; it must also be easily accessible.
Adequate transportation facilities should be available for carrying the material from the source of supply. A guiding principle should be followed in this regard i. It influences the total cost of production. Labour implies both the skilled and unskilled workers needed for different types of activities. The supply of un-skilled labour does not create any serious problem because such labour is available everywhere. Skilled labour is available only at specific centres.
Industries requiring highly skilled labour have to select such sites which ensure adequate and regular supply of required labour. Availability of skilled and efficient labour is mainly responsible for the development of various industries in a particular region e. On account of mobility of labour, this factor does not materially affect the location of an industrial unit. The labour can be attracted by providing various facilities and incentives like housing, canteen, rest rooms, incentive wage plans etc.
In actual practice, if required skilled labour is not available in a particular region, the available labour can be trained in the required skill or alternatively skilled and trained labour can be migrated from other regions to the plant.
But both these methods are time consuming and involve a lot of expenditure which ultimately increase the cost of production. In the past, coal was the main sources of power supply for various types of heavy and large scale industries like iron and steel, cement and aluminium etc. But at present, there are several other sources of power, e. On account of these various alternative sources of power supply, coal, as a main source of power is getting lesser recognition.
Rapid development of hydro-electric power has provided wider choice for location of industrial units even at far flung and remote areas. Modern industrialisation could not have been possible without the growth of hydroelectric generating units. In certain type of industries transportation is the sole factor which is taken into consideration in deciding location of an industrial unit. For example, a cement factory is always situated near the source of lime stone which is carried usually with the help of trolleys to the factory.
Transportation is the life line of modern industry. The basic aim of selecting a particular mode of transportation should be minimum transportation cost with maximum transportation service. An industry should be located in the areas where there are already developed means of transportation. Faridabad in Haryana developed as an industrial town on account of availability of both rail and road transportation. Phagwara serves another very good example of this type. Certain port towns like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras have attained significant importance on account of availability of excellent water and rail transportation facilities.
In modern times different modes of transportation and their increased efficiency and flexibility have provided ample choice to the industrialists in the matter of location. Besides transportation, communication services are also used to be of immense importance in deciding the location of an industrial unit. A businessman needs regular information with regard to changes in the price of raw materials and finished products and other valuable information.
On account of development of internet, mobile phones etc. The production of goods is undertaken with the aim of selling them quickly which is possible only on account of nearness to market. Industries using pure raw material which do not lose their weight when turned into finished products may be situated away from the source of such raw materials.
For example, wool is primarily produced in Australia, but woollen hosieries are found throughout the world. On the other hand, market as a factor of location will not affect much the location of industries using heavy and weight losing raw material.
For example, iron and textile units are situated near the coal supplying centres. Similarly sugar factories are located very near the sources of raw materials. Markets may be national or regional. In case where the demand of the product is on regional basis, the factory is usually situated near the major market for the product. For example, a publishing house publishing Punjabi books cannot be located in Calcutta or Bombay. Its ideal location would be Jalandhar, which is a leading publishing centre in Punjab.
Following factors can be explained under this category:. Nearness to banks and other financial institutions is an important consideration now-a- days in deciding location of an industrial unit. This is because banking has become indispensable part of modern business. In case of rural and small scale industries, banks and financial institutions play an important role and provide invaluable service in order to cater their financial needs. A large scale concern can afford to install its own repair workshops, whereas small concerns may rely on various repair shops working near the factory.
In order to protect the factory against the risk of fire, adequate fire fighting facilities must be provided. Internal arrangements pertaining to fire extinguishers, sand buckets and other firefighting equipment must be arranged. In case there arises the necessity of calling fire brigades, proper preparations must be made for the same. On account of this factor, jute industry developed in West- Bengal and tea industry in Assam. Similarly topography e. Areas which are frequently subjected to earthquakes and other natural calamities may not attract many industries.
Climate of a place also considerably affects the efficiency of workers. Efficient workers are found in cool climatic regions. On the other hand workers from tropical regions are not generally so efficient. This also affects the establishment of an industrial unit. Another important point in this regard is that means of transportation and communication are more in plains rather than in hilly areas. That is why industries have developed largely in plains rather than in hilly areas.
Prior permission and licence is necessary under the Act before the setting up of a new industrial unit. Certain cash incentives and concessions are also given by Govt, in order to promote a particular industry in a particular region. A careful thought to all these rules, regulations and provisions of Act must be given before the establishment of an industrial unit.
In order to develop industries on sound lines, Govt, has declared certain areas as industrially backward or special economic zones. Certain concession and subsidies like cheap land, power and tax concession and subsidised raw materials etc. Such measures are undertaken by the Govt, in order to ensure balanced and regional growth of industries in India.
A few industries start at a place and gradually other similar type of industries start at that particular place. For example, at Manimajra a small town near Chandigarh a few small automobile spare parts shops started about two decades back, but now a fully fledged automobile market has developed in that area.
Similarly, at Ludhiana a few hosiery units started in the beginning, now Ludhiana has become a very big hosiery articles producing centre in India. Carpet industry developed gradually at Mirjapur district of Uttar Pradesh. There are various reasons responsible for such a concentration of industries in a particular region viz. They involve themselves completely in the intricacies and various operations of the machines and implements being used in the industry. There is a complete industrial atmosphere.
Carpet industry at Bhadohi and Mirzapur serves a very good example of this kind. Major population of these cities is engaged in carpet processing, carpet washing, carpet weaving and carpet finishing. Not only men, but women and children have also engaged themselves in this industry directly or indirectly.
Similarly, at Bombay film industry has developed. It is easier and cheaper to produce a film in Bombay than in any other part of the country. Henry Ford started manufacturing motor cars in Detroit because he belonged to that place. Certain merchants belonging to Ahmedabad have made that place a leading textile centre of India. But such personal likes and dislikes cannot influence location of an industrial unit in the long run. Purchasing power of the people and composition of population in that region should be carefully studied.
These studies and surveys render valuable information which is greatly helpful in establishing and industrial unit in particular region. On the other hand, disturbed political and economic set up discourages the growth of industries in the region. Similarly is the case in certain other states where, on account of political disturbances, manufacturers have started thinking to settle elsewhere and further industrial expansion has been greatly affected.
Every industrial undertaking is established with the aim to expand in future. On the other hand, unhealthy competition retards the industrial growth in a region. Constant research and experimentation is undertaken to develop products and improved methods of production.
Large concerns can afford to have a separate research department to meet this end, but in case of small and medium industrial units such facilities may be provided by specialised scientific and research institutions. Existence of such specialised institutions must be kept in mind before starting an industrial unit. The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the success of the industrial venture.
Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the plant site, and many different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant must be located where the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but, other factors such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation as well as the surrounding community are also important.
The location of the plant can also have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project. The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete survey of the advantages and disadvantages of various geographical areas and ultimately, on the advantages and disadvantages of the available real estate. The various principal factors that must be considered while selecting a suitable plant site, are briefly discussed in this section.
The factors to be considered are:. This is particularly true for the sulphuric acid plant because large volumes of sulphur are consumed in the process which will result in the reduction of the transportation and storage charges. Attention should be given to the purchased price of the raw materials, distance from the source of supply, freight and transportation expenses, availability and reliability of supply, purity of raw materials and storage requirements.
Proximity to the major markets is an important consideration in the selection of the plant site, because the buyer usually finds advantageous to purchase from near-by sources. In case of sulfuric acid plant, the major consumers are fertilizer industries and hence the plant should be erected in close proximity to those units.
The topography of the tract of land structure must be considered, since either or both may have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the land is important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes may make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities. The land should be ideally flat, well drained and have load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.
If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse. Rail transport will be cheaper for the long-distance transport.
If possible the plant site should have access to all three types of transportation. There is usually need for convenient rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and the main company head quarters, and the effective transportation facilities for the plant personnel are necessary.
Skilled construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should be an adequate pool of unskilled labors available locally; and labors suitable for training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.
Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability and suitability of the labors for recruitment and training. These services will normally be supplied from a central facility and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity which are briefly described as follows:. Water: — The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting with water for cooling, washing, steam generation and as a raw material in the production of sulfuric acid.
The plant therefore must be located where a dependable water supply is available namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas. The temperature, mineral content, slit and sand content, bacteriological content, and cost for supply and purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a water supply. Demineralized water, from which all the minerals have been removed is used where pure water is needed for the process use, in boiler feed.
Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling water required on site. Electricity : — Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is ordinarily required to supply these utilities.
Power, fuel and steam are required for running the various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and general use and thus be considered as one major factor is choice of plant site. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for various effluents should be considered and attention should be given to potential requirements for additional waste treatment facilities. As all industrial processes produce waste products, full consideration must be given to the difficulties and coat of their disposal.
The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met.
Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a significant additional risk to the community.
Extremes of low temperatures will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and piping. Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose serious problems and must be considered for selecting a site for the plant. Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high wind loads or earthquakes. The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection. Similarly, local regulations on zoning, building codes, nuisance aspects and others facilities can have a major influence on the final choice of the plant site.
PLANT LAY OUT — After the flow process diagrams are completed and before detailed piping, structural and electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in a plant and the equipment within these process unit must be planned.
This layout can play an important part in determining construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be planned carefully with attention being given to future problems that may arise. Thus the economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The principal factors that are considered are listed below:.
COSTS : — The coat of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of connecting pipe between equipment, and least amount of structural steel work.
However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient positions and heights.
Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow easy access to equipment. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the out side of buildings.
Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level in process buildings.
Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea. The advantages of modular construction are:. Location, localization and planned location of industries are often felt to be synonymous.
But, the distinction among these three terms is of immense importance. Entrepreneurs locate their enterprises where the cost of production comes, the lowest at the time of establishing industries. The early theories of industrial location carried out the analysis on a simple framework where the locational and special diversification was simply determined by an adjustment between location and weight distance characteristics of inputs and outputs.
The reason is that the then industrial structure was heavily dominated by the natural resource-base and consumer-oriented industries. But, over the period the very consideration for locating industries in a particular region has undergone a considerable change so the early theories of industrial location have become improper to explain location.
Consideration of natural resources in the choice of industrial location has declined and the industries are likely to be established even in those areas with poor natural endowment. This holds especially true in the case of industries which are not heavily biased in favour of raw material source for their location.
It is seen that such industries are gaining increasingly greater importance in the industrial map of India during the recent decades. Concentration of IT industries in Bangalore and Hyderabad are such examples. It is not always possible to explain industrial location independently with the help of any one factor. Selection of industrial location is a strategic decision. It is a onetime decision and not be retracted again and again without bearing heavy costs.
If the raw materials are perishable and to be consumed as such, then the industries always tend to locate nearer to raw material source.
Steel and cement industries can be such examples. In the case of small- scale industries, these could be food and fruit processing, meat and fish canning, jams, juices and ketchups, etc. Production has no value without consumption. Consumption involves market that is, selling goods and products to the consumers. Thus, an industry cannot be thought of without market.
Therefore, while considering the market an entrepreneur has not only to assess the existing segment and the region but also the potential growth, newer regions and the location of competitors. If the market is widely scattered over a vast territory, then entrepreneur needs to find out a central location that provides the lowest distribution cost.
The infrastructural facilities include power, transport and communication, water, banking, etc. Yes, depending upon the types of industry these could assume disproportionate priorities. Power situation should be studied with reference to its reliability, adequacy, rates concessional, if any , own requirements, subsidy for standby arrangements etc.
Similarly adequate water supply at low cost may become a dominant decisional factor in case of selection of industrial location for leather, chemical, rayon, food processing, chemical and alike. Just to give you an idea what gigantic proportions can water as a resource assumes. Note that a tone of synthetic rubber requires 60 thousand gallons, a tone of aluminum takes 3 lakhs gallons, and a tone of rayon consumes 2 lakh gallons of water.
Similarly, location of jute industry on river Hooghly presents an example where transportation media becomes a dominant decisional factor for plant location. Establishing sea food industry next to port of embarkation is yet another example where transportation becomes the deciding criteria for industrial location. Then, other factors being comparative, these factors become the most significant in deciding the location of an industry.
As regards the availability of skilled labour, the existence of technical training institutes in the area proves useful. Besides, an entrepreneur should also study labour relations through turnover rates, absenteeism and liveliness of trade unionism in the particular area.
Such information can be obtained from existing industries working in the area. Similarly, the wage rates prevalent in the area also have an important bearing on selection of location decision. Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, is a classic example of such laws prohibiting putting up polluting industries in prone areas.
Therefore, in order to control industrial growth, laws are enforced to decongest some areas while simultaneously encourage certain other areas. For example, while taxation on a higher rate may discourage some industries from setting up in an area, the same in terms of tax holidays for some years may become the dominant decisional factor for establishing some other industries in other areas. Taxation is a Centre as well as State Subject. In some highly competitive consumer products, its high quantum may turn out to be the negative factor while its relief may become the final deciding factor for some other industry.
For example, manufacturing plants apart from producing solid waste can also pollute water and air. Moreover, stringent waste disposal laws, in case of such industries, add to the manufacturing cost to exorbitant limits.
In view of this, the industries which are likely to damage the ecology and environment of an area will not be established in such areas.
The Government will not grant permission to the entrepreneurs to establish such industries in such ecologically and environmentally sensitive areas. The areas where there is more competition among industries, the new units will not be established in these areas.
On the other hand, the areas where there is either no or very less competition, new enterprises will tend to be established in such areas. This is because the progress made in islands only cannot sustain for long. The reason is not difficult to seek. Therefore, the Government offers several incentives, concessions, tax holidays, cheaper lands, assured and cheaper power supply, price concessions for departmental state purchases, etc. It is seen that good number of entrepreneurs considers these facilities as decisive factor to establish industries in these locations.
However, it has also been observed that these facilities can attract entrepreneurs to establish industries in backward areas provided other required facilities do also exist there. For example, incentives and concessions cannot duly compensate for lack of infrastructural facilities like communication and transportation facilities.
This is precisely one of the major reasons why people in-spite of so many incentives and concessions on offer by the Government, are not coming forward to establish industries in some backward areas.
And, climatic conditions affect both people and manufacturing activity. It affects human efficiency and behaviour to a great extent. Wild and cold climate is conducive to higher productivity. Likewise, certain industries require specific type of climatic conditions to produce their goods. For example, jute and textiles manufacturing industries require high humidity. As such, these can be established in Kashmir experiencing humidity-less climate.
On the other hand, industrial units manufacturing precision goods like watches require cold climate and hence, will be established in the locations having cold climate like Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
That political stability fosters industrial activity and political upheaval derails industrial initiates is duly confirmed by political situations across the countries and regions within the same country.
The political stability builds confidence and political instability causes lack of confidence among the prospective and present entrepreneurs to venture into industry which is filled with risks. Besides, an entrepreneur will have also to look into the availability of community services such as housing, schools and colleges, recreational facilities and municipal services. Lack of these facilities makes people hesitant and disinterested to move to such locations for work.
Very closer to political conditions is law and order situation prevalent in an area also influences selection of industrial location. People will be interested to move to areas having no law and order problem to establish their industries like Maharashtra and Gujarat. It is due to this law and order problem the Nano car manufacturing unit shifted from Nandi gram in West Bengal to Gujarat. There are many qualitative and quantitative techniques adopted to interpolate the above factors to arrive at a logical decision.
The simplest and most commonly adopted is weight rating method illustrated in Figure below. Besides above factors, the location of certain industries also depends upon the delivery of emergency services like fire, police, hospital, etc.
It seems in the fitness of the context to present the real cases of locational considerations of the entrepreneurs of small-scale industries in India. Based on extensive research study, one researcher has found the following most important considerations that entrepreneurs consider for selecting the location of their enterprises.
Concept of Plant Layout: — Plant layout is a plan for effective utilisation of facilities for the manufacture of products; involving a most efficient and economical arrangement of machines, materials, personnel, storage space and all supporting services, within available floor space.
Points of comment: — Certain useful observations on the concept of plant layout are as follows:. Principles of Plant Layout: — While designing the plant layout, the following principles must be kept in view:. The raw material is supplied at one end of the line and goes from one operation to the next quite rapidly with a minimum work in process, storage and material handling. Same type of operation facilities are grouped together such as lathes will be placed at one place, all the drill machines are at another place and so on.
See Fig. Therefore, the process carried out in that area is according to the machine available in that area. Thus, total investment in equipment purchase will be reduced. This type of layout is used in the manufacture of boilers, hydraulic and steam turbines and ships etc. Hence, effective planning and loading can be made.
Thus total production cost will be reduced. This may increase the cost of production. Flexibility is a very important factory, so layout should be such which can be molded according to the requirements of industry, without much investment. If the good features of all types of layouts are connected, a compromise solution can be obtained which will be more economical and flexible. This relates to details regarding position of machines, area covered by each machine, internal transportation and other operations pertaining to production.
This model diagram is prepared on the paper. Not only machines but space covered by furniture, equipment and other components can also form a template. These can be well arranged representing the actual plan of layout to be undertaken. By seeing these models even a layman can form an idea about the layout of the plant.
But this technique is very costly and only big concern can afford to install such a measure. These obtain valuable information regarding various salient features or characteristics of machines viz.
Some of the major factors which affect plant layout are: 1 Policies of management 2 Plant location 3 Nature of the product 4 Volume of production 5 Availability of floor space 6 Nature of manufacturing process and 7 Repairs and maintenance of equipment and machines. Various managerial policies relate to future volume of production and expansion, size of the plant, integration of production processes; facilities to employees, sales and marketing policies and purchasing policies etc.
These policies and plans have positive impact in deciding plant layout. Topography, shape, climate conditions, and size of the site selected will influence the general arrangement of the layout and the flow of work in and out of the building. In case of process industries, where the production is carried in a sequence, product layout is suitable.
For example, soap manufacturing, sugar producing units and breweries apply product type of layout. On the other hand in case of intermittent or assembly industries, process type of layout best suited.
For example, in case of industries manufacturing cycles, typewriters, sewing machines and refrigerators etc. Production of heavy and bulky items need different layout as compared to small and light items. Similarly products with complex and dangerous operations would require isolation instead of integration of processes.
There are three systems of production viz. Ship building is an appropriate example of this kind. This method of plant layout viz. Product layout is best suited for mass production units. This method is generally similar to job production except the quality of production.
Instead of making one single product as in case of job production a batch or group of products is produced at one time, It should be remembered here that one batch of products has no resemblance with the next batch.
If there is a scarcity of space, product layout may be undertaken. On the other hand more space may lead to the adoption of process layout. For example, in the manufacture of cement, lime stone and clay are mixed. Under this method different products are extracted from one material.
For example, from crude oil, petroleum, gas, kerosene and coal tar etc. Jute is an important example of this kind. This involves the process of separation, for example, aluminium is separated from bauxite. The machines should not be installed so closely that it may create the problems of their maintenance and repairs.
Meaning: — Material control is the main component of the process of material management. Control over materials is of utmost importance for smooth and uninterrupted functioning of an organisation.
In simple words, material control refers to the various measures adopted to reduce the amount of loss of materials at the time of receiving, storing and issuing the raw materials. Material control in practice is exercised through periodical records and reports relating to purchase, receipt, inspection, storage and issuing direct and indirect materials.
Proper control over material can contribute substantially to the efficiency of a business. Objectives of Materials Control: — The following are the main objectives of materials control:. Production stoppages and production delays cause substantial loss to a concern. If quality of the raw materials is not up to desired standards, the end product will not be of desired quality which affects the sale of the product in the market resulting in loss of profits as well as goodwill of the concern.
It is of vital importance to exercise strict control and supervision over the purchases, storage and handling of materials. The causes responsible for such losses must be brought to light and utmost efforts should be made to minimise the wastage of raw materials.
This is possible only by introducing an efficient materials control system. Necessity and importance of material control: — In a productive undertaking the need of materials control arises on account of the following reasons:. As already pointed out while explaining the scope of material management that it includes purchases of materials, storekeeping and inventory control etc. To select most efficient, safe and appropriate material handling equipment, which can fulfill material handling requirement at minimum cost?
Objectives of Material Handling: — The common hand shovel and the baskets were the only material handling tools, until some years ago, but now due to increasing demand for sophisticated handling equipment, material handling system has been revolutionized all over the world. The main objective of the efficient materials handling is to decrease the costs. Materials handling equipment does not come under the production machinery but is an auxiliary equipment which can improve the flow of materials which in turn shall reduce the stoppages in production machines and thus increases their production.
In brief followings are the objectives:. These devices include trucks and other similar vehicles. These vehicle are powered by hand, gasoline or electric power, and have the capability of transporting material and manpower in a horizontal direction.
Thus these vehicles occupy the space intermittently and as soon as the work is over the space is free for some other operation. The simplest among these are wheel barrows and trucks. But these devices need large amount of manpower for relatively small load. These involve easy portability, greater flexibility and low cost. When movement from one work station to other is required. Tractors and trailers are the other popular modes of horizontal transportation.
Great flexibility is provided by these methods. Trailers can be left loaded and can be picked up later by other different tractors.
This is considered as one of the most convenient and important methods of material handling inside the plant. Skids can be used with lift trucks. These are the improvements over wheel barrows and hand trucks. For horizontal transportation of commodities like natural gas, oil and water etc.
Block and Tackle arrangement of lifting loads through vertical distance is one of the oldest and simplest devices. It is still used today by moving men in hoisting machinery into position. Which is another device used to lift loads vertically by winding rope or cable on a drum.
Cranes and Hoist are the common means of vertical movement. The equipment is able to move material vertically and laterally in a space of limited length width as well as height. If mounted on carriers like trucks and tractors etc. Hoists are power driven devices, often operated between fixed guiderails. Two types of cranes i.
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